Starting Research
1957
The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 ignited the Space Race. Technology made it possible for humans to reach beyond Earth's atmosphere, and the challenge was making space travel survivable. Over the next decade, researchers studied how humans might adapt to weightlessness, motion, and gravitational forces. In the process they began to unravel how human senses overlap, adapt, or replace one another.
In 1958, Dr. Ashton Graybiel and his Navy research team joined forces with the newly formed NASA in search of solutions to motion sickness. The team experimented on inner ear organs that determine orientation for monkeys, snails, cats, and humans. The numerous human subjects included eleven deaf men called the “Labyrinthe-Defectives” (“LDs”) for the lack of functioning labyrinthe organs in their inner ears. On zero gravity flights, in rotating devices, onboard a ship over turbulent seas, and in centrifuges the eleven simply did not get motion sick.
“This may well be the most important and fascinating side of space flight; not what it will reveal to us of distant worlds but what it will unveil to us about ourselves.”
Martin P. Lansberg, National Aeromedical Center
1958 - Naval Aerospace Medical Institute
Pensacola, FL
Bob Greenmun, Gallaudet Class of 1936, and a teacher at the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, was the first to be contacted for motion sickness experiments. At the Pensacola facility, Dr. Graybiel had created a 12-foot rotating room and was already conducting experiments on hearing aviators.
"Graybiel was holding an overhead crossbar and gritting his teeth for dear life, and looking very uncomfortable, and it suddenly dawned on me that we had been in motion even when he was talking."
-Bob Greenmun, letter to family, 1958
Though he had some labyrinthe function, Greenmun did not get motion sickness and often had to “play nurse maid” to Navy aides who suffered during experiments. Other deaf men from Florida also participated, but with varying degrees of labyrinthe function. Researchers needed deaf persons who could communicate effectively in writing to record the results of experiments; no interpreting was provided. Close with Dr. Graybiel, Greenmun often helped with research and data collection. He suggested that Graybiel contact his alma-mater Gallaudet College, now University.
“Dear Bob Greenmun,
Someday I hope it will be possible for everyone to know both the nature and extent of your willingness to cooperate with us in carrying out what we consider to be a very important research project."
Dr. Ashton Graybiel, personal letter, May 1958.
1961 - Gallaudet Campus
Washington, DC
In the spring of 1961, Dr. Graybiel and his staff screened approximately 100 Gallaudet students, staff, and faculty, finding ten qualified “labyrinthe-defective” men. The process included balance tests, spinning volunteers in chairs, and pouring cold water into the ears for a caloric reflex test. With a functioning inner ear, the eyes will move towards the ear with water pressure.
“Our eyes never moved, even when the temperature of the water was 32°[F]! They told us that the test was used to catch draft dodgers during WWII who claimed to be deaf, but were not.”
Donald Peterson, “Memoirs of a Guinea Pig” 2009
Each selected test subject demonstrated:
- physical health
- writing skills needed to communicate reactions
- the ability to endure movement and gravitational forces without becoming sick
Being deaf was not the reason they were selected.
Together with Greenmun, the group adopted the term “LDs” for labyrinthe-defectives, though they would also refer to themselves as guinea pigs, or the "Gallaudet Eleven”, ultimately earning the title Bioastronaut. All became deaf from spinal meningitis except Greenmun, who had scarlet fever.
The Gallaudet Eleven, with Class Years
Harold Domich, '40
Robert (Bob) Greenmun, '36
Barron Gulak, '62
Raymond Harper, '64
Jerald Jordan, '48
Harry Larson, '61
David Myers, '61
Donald Peterson, '53
Raymond Piper, '62
Alvin Steele, '63
John Zakutney, '64